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1. The Scope of Victimology1

Learning Objectives1

Introduction1

The Victim Throughout History1

The Reemergence of the Victim3

The Work of Hans von Hentig: The Criminal and His Victim4

The Work of Benjamin Mendelsohn: Further Reflections5

The Work of Stephen Schafer: The Victim and His Criminal6

Other Scholarly Efforts7

Empirical Studies of Victim Precipitation7

The Work of Marvin E. Wolfgang: Patterns in Criminal Homicide7

The Work of Menachem Amir: Patterns in Forcible Rape8

Criticisms and Reactions9

A New Approach: General Victimology11

Critical Victimology12

The Victim Movement14

The Women's Movement14

Children's Rights14

The Growing Crime Problem15

Victim Compensation15

Legal Reforms16

Other Factors16

Summary and Overview of This Book18

Key Terms for Chapter 119

2. Measuring Criminal Victimization21

Learning Objectives21

Introduction22

Official Police Reports22

Victimization Surveys25

First-Generation Victim Surveys26

The NORC Survey26

Some Methodological Considerations27

Second-Generation Victim Surveys28

Recall Problems28

Respondent Concerns30

Third-Generation Victim Surveys30

The National Crime Survey30

The Business Victimization Survey31

City Surveys32

Fourth-Generation Victim Surveys32

Crime Surveys Outside the United States35

Comparing the NCVS and the UCR36

Repeat Victimization37

Summary42

Key Terms for Chapter 242

3.Property Victimization43

Learning Objectives43

Introduction43

Types of Property Victimization44

Burglary44

Larceny/Theft45

Motor Vehicle Theft46

Arson47

Trends in Property Crime48

The Consequences of Index Property Crime49

Other Economic Crimes50

Traditional Fraud51

Identity Theft52

Mass-Marketing Fraud55

Cybercrime Against Businesses58

Summary of Property Crime Types59

Further Costs of Property Victimization59

Summary60

Key Terms for Chapter 361

4 Personal Victimization63

Learning Objectives63

Introduction64

Personal Crimes64

Homicide Victimization64

Assault Victimization70

Robbery Victimization71

The Impact of Personal Crime74

Theories of Personal Victimization76

Social Interactionism76

The Routine Activities/Lifestyle Model78

Strain Theory79

Learning Theory79

The "Regional Culture of Violence" Thesis82

Cultural Challenges83

Regional Challenges84

Medical Resources as an Emerging Theoretical Dimension84

The Impact of Medical Resources85

Empirical Evidence86

Some Remaining Issues87

Assisting the Victim88

Death Notification89

The Bereavement Process91

Summary93

Key Terms for Chapter 493

5. The Costs of Being a Victim95

Learning Objectives95

Introduction95

The Consequences of Victimization96

The First Insult: Criminal Victimization96

The Second Insult: System Participation100

Prosecutorial-Based Victim-Witness Projects103

Project Development105

Project Performance106

Project Evaluation107

Beyond the Prosecutor's Office109

Dissenting Voices114

Summary115

Key Terms for Chapter 5115

6.Remedying the Plight of Victims117

Learning Objectives117

Introduction117

Offender Restitution118

The Rationale for Restitution119

Types of Restitution120

Evaluating the Impact of Restitution121

Problems and Concerns with Restitution122

Civil Litigation124

Private Insurance127

Victim Compensation128

Philosophical Bases130

Compensable Acts130

Eligibility Restrictions131

Awards132

Funding133

Reporting Crime and Applying for Compensation133

Does Victim Compensation Work?133

Macro-Level Effects134

Micro-Level Effects135

Problems and Concerns with Compensation135

Summary136

Key Terms for Chapter 6137

7.Restorative Justice139

Learning Objectives139

Introduction139

Dispute Resolution140

Common Elements in Dispute Resolution Programs141

Evaluation of Dispute Resolution142

Restorative Justice143

The Development of Restorative Justice145

Theoretical Basis of Restorative Practices146

Types of Restorative Justice147

Victim-Offender Mediation149

Family Group Conferencing150

Circle Sentencing151

Summary of Restorative Justice Types153

The Impact of Restorative Justice153

Satisfaction and Compliance155

Recidivism156

Problems and Issues with Restorative Justice157

Summary160

Key Terms for Chapter 7161

8. Sexual Battery163

Learning Objectives163

Introduction164

Defining Sexual Battery164

Spousal Rape166

Date or Acquaintance Rape167

Punishing Sexual Battery168

Coker v. Georgia (1977)168

Kennedy v. Louisiana (2008)168

Measuring the Extent of Rape169

UCR Information170

NCVS Information170

Comparing the UCR with the NCVS Over Time171

More Recent Efforts173

The National College Women Sexual Victimization Study173

The National Violence Against Women Survey174

Sexual Victimization at the National Military Academies175

A Word of Caution176

Theories of Sexual Battery177

Intraindividual Theories177

Sociocultural Explanations178

Typological Efforts180

Summary of Sexual Assault Causation181

The Aftermath of Rape181

Crisis Reaction182

The Crisis Reaction Repair Cycle183

Impact183

Recoil184

Reorganization184

Legal Reforms185

Compulsory AIDS Testing186

Consent and Corroboration187

Shield Provisions191

Sex Offender Registration192

The Impact of Legal Reform195

Macro-Level Effects196

Micro-Level Effects197

Summary of Legal Reform197

Responding to Sexual Assault Victims198

The Police198

The Hospital199

Medical Examination200

Forensic Examination201

The Prosecutor202

Summary203

Key Terms for Chapter 8204

9.Intimate Partner Violence205

Learning Objectives205

Introduction206

A Brief History of Intimate Partner Violence207

The Extent of Intimate Partner Violence209

Theories of Intimate Partner Violence213

Intraindividual Theories214

Sociocultural Explanations (Patriarchy)215

The Social Learning Approach: Learned Helplessness216

The Cycle of Violence217

Police Intervention218

The Arrest Option218

Nonarrest Options221

The Minneapolis Experiment221

Reaction to the Minneapolis Experiment223

Agency Directives223

Legislative Reform226

Academic Concerns227

The Minneapolis Experiment Replications228

Prosecutorial and Judicial Action229

Crawford v. Washington (2004)234

Davis v. Washington (2006)235

Giles v. California (2008)236

Summary of Judicial Action236

Coordinating System Approaches237

More Recent Responses239

Stalking Laws239

The Lautenberg Amendment242

Court-Ordered Mandatory Counseling243

Executive Clemency245

National Telephone Hotline247

Fatality Review Systems248

Summary249

Key Terms for Chapter 9250

10. Child Maltreatment251

Learning Objectives251

Introduction252

The Discovery of Child Maltreatment253

Understanding the Discovery of Child Maltreatment255

A Survey of Child Maltreatment Laws256

Statutory Definitions256

The Reporter257

The Report259

The Central Register263

Some Trouble Spots263

The Child Welfare System264

The Incidence of Child Maltreatment265

A Word of Caution Regarding Official Maltreatment Statistics269

Theories of Child Maltreatment270

Intraindividual Theories270

Sociocultural Explanations271

The Social Learning Approach272

Some Coping Strategies274

Home Visitation274

Education276

Safe Haven Laws277

Parents Anonymous278

Counseling279

Children's Advocacy Centers280

Sex Offender Registration and Notification281

Megan's Law281

The Adam Walsh Act282

Other Considerations283

Civil Commitment284

Amber Alert286

Legal Reform287

Summary290

Key Terms for Chapter 10291

11. Crime and the Elderly293

Learning Objectives293

Introduction294

The Rise of Interest in the Elderly294

Demographic Change294

Political Action297

Social Consciousness298

Defining the Elderly298

Criminal Victimization of the Elderly299

Fear of Crime300

Explaining the Fear-Crime Paradox303

Measuring Fear303

Risk304

Vulnerability306

Vicarious Victimization307

Elder Abuse and Neglect307

Defining the Problem308

The Incidence of Elder Maltreatment310

Some Characteristics of Victims and Offenders312

Institutional Maltreatment314

Extent of Institutional Maltreatment315

Causes of Institutional Maltreatment316

Responding to Institutional Maltreatment318

Theories of Elder Maltreatment318

Intraindividual Theories319

Situational Aspects319

Symbolic Interactionism320

Social Exchange321

Social Attitudes321

Responding to Elder Maltreatment322

Mandatory Reporting322

Social Service Provision324

Research325

Summary326

Key Terms for Chapter 11328

12. Victimization at Work and School329

Learning Objectives329

Introduction329

Victimization at Work330

Defining Workplace Victimization330

The Extent of Workplace Victimization331

Workplace Bullying336

Explanations and Causes of Workplace Victimization337

Intervention and Prevention339

Responses to Workplace Victimization340

Victimization at School343

Victimization in Junior and Senior High Schools343

The Extent of School Victimization344

Responses to School Victimization346

Explanations and Causes of School Victimization348

Addressing School Victimization349

College Campus Victimization351

The Extent of College Student Victimization352

Explanations and Causes of College Campus Victimization353

Addressing Campus Crime355

Sexual Harassment355

The Extent of Sexual Harassment357

Responses to Sexual Harassment358

Summary360

Key Terms for Chapter 12361

13. Victim Rights363

Learning Objectives363

Introduction363

Victim Rights Amendment364

Federal Constitutional Reform364

State Constitutional Reform367

Rekindling Federal Constitutional Reform369

Victim Rights Legislation373

Federal Legislative Reform374

State Legislative Reform377

Victim Impact Statements379

The Effect of Victim Impact Statements382

Federal Supreme Court Rulings383

Booth v. Maryland (1987)384

South Carolina v. Gathers (1989)385

Payne v. Tennessee (1991)387

Kelly v. California (2008)387

The Post-Payne Era388

Professionalizing Victim Advocacy389

Some Closing Thoughts393

Summary394

Key Terms for Chapter 13395

References397

Author Index445

Subject Index459